"Executive summary: Since the military takeover on 1 February 2021, the security situation in Myanmar has deteriorated, poverty levels have risen – to 40 per cent of the population living below the national poverty line – and the number of displaced persons has increased sharply. The economy has contracted with international investors pulling out, and job losses and underemployment have increased significantly. Democratic space has come under pressure with the military authorities cracking down on civil protest, trade union leaders and political opponents. Human rights violations, particularly of civil rights, have been documented and investigated in detail by a Commission of Inquiry (COI) established by the Governing Body of the International Labour Organization (ILO). This study was undertaken to analyse and better understand how these developments have impacted child labour in Myanmar, and to provide inputs and advice on viable strategies to address child labour in the current circumstances. It includes a situational assessment, covering trends and developments in child labour in ethnically controlled areas in four states – Mon, Kayin, Kayah (Karenni) and Shan States. It also includes case studies of children engaged in child labour which illustrate key themes and developments in the incidence, nature and causes of child labour in Myanmar. The study was carried out in 2023–24, with field work conducted virtually in early 2024 due to the challenging security situation in the country. The study’s key conclusions of the study are based on the results of the field work, supplemented by the results of other recent studies and research. It is safe to assume that the conclusions have some applicability outside the study areas, even though statistically valid estimations of child labour are beyond the scope of this study. Key conclusions This study finds that the military takeover has impacted child labour in the four study areas – and most likely in all of Myanmar – in a number of ways. The top line conclusions are that: The risk of child labour appears to have increased since the military takeover. As a result of the deteriorating security and economic situation, more children are on the move, live in poverty, and face restrictions to their movements (such as checkpoints and documentation requirements that are difficult to meet). All of these factors increase the risk of child labour. These “outside” factors are significant drivers of child labour in Myanmar (and other conflict areas), and are underpinned by perceptions and cultural norms about who is a “good child” that pre-date the military takeover. They are also underpinned by perceptions and experiences of security and insecurity that are very significant in shaping preferences, for example, for work rather than education when schools are not regarded as safe. There has been a noticeable shift in attitudes towards child labour in Myanmar, primarily driven by a desire to avoid conscription. With the renewed enforcement of the People’s Military Service Law of 20102 by the military authorities, and conscription by some ethnic armed groups, many families now regard child labour as a means of keeping their children safe from recruitment into armed conflict. This change in perceptions appears to have contributed to an increase in child labour. The renewed enforcement of the conscription law has also prompted many able-bodied adults to flee, leaving children behind to take up the economic responsibilities in their households. The nature of child labour in Myanmar appears to be evolving. While children are still primarily engaged in agriculture, there seems to be greater vulnerability to the worst forms of child labour. These include forced recruitment into armed conflict, as well as recruitment into criminal activities. Early marriages also appear to be increasing. The recruitment of children into the gambling and scamming industry appears to be of particular concern in border areas (Shan and Kayin States), where children able to speak Chinese. Children are often lured into gambling and scamming by recruiters who target children in camps for internally displaced persons (IDPs). It is difficult to determine whether the children recruited into gambling and scamming are usually boys or girls. However, other forms of child labour appear to follow traditional gendered patterns. Girls are more likely to be recruited for domestic work or forced into early marriages, while boys are at higher risk of (potentially forced) recruitment into armed conflict. Protecting children against child labour and other rights violations is increasingly difficult due to the security situation and the military authorities’ policies and actions towards civil society organizations. There is an urgent need to adjust both technical strategies and operational arrangements to prevent child labour, protect working children, and ensure that children have alternatives to child labour, particularly its worst forms..."