Education in
Thein Lwin
First Edition July 1999
Abstract: This paper embodies a documentary analysis of
the Burmese education system within the historical context. It provides an overview of the Burmese
historical background, education before independence (1945-1948), after
independence (1948-1962), under the military rule (1962-1988) and on the wave
of democratisation (1988-2000). The
study significantly found that Burmese schools have predominantly performed
teacher-centred and subject-oriented teaching and learning with a lack of
teacher training and a weak curriculum.
Furthermore, indigenous people have little chance to promote their
language and culture given the supremacy of the Burmese language. Although
1. Historical Background
Colonial
History
In the 19th
century, disputes with the British about commercial and diplomatic relations
resulted in three Anglo-Burmese wars (1824-26, 1852 and 1885), as a result of which
the British took over Burma in three stages: Rakhine (Arakan) and Tenasserim
provinces in 1826, Lower Burma in 1852 and the remaining kingdom of Upper Burma
in 1885. King Thibaw, the last king of
The roots of 20th-century
Burmese nationalism lay in growing Burmese perceptions that they were
second-class citizens in their own country, in British ‘divide and rule’
policies and the loss of traditional authority structures and in the exploitation
by the British and other foreigners of
In the 1920s nationalist
politics were led by the General Council of Burmese Associations (GCBA), which
had evolved from the Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA). The 1930s saw the
rise of the Do-Bama
Asi-Ayon (We Burmans Association) of the Thahkin[1]
nationalists who, taking inspiration from the failed peasant uprising of Hsaya San in 1930-32, resolved that military training and
organisation was necessary to defeat the British and regain Burma’s
independence (Herbert, 1991). In 1937, the administration of
World War II and the
Japanese invasion of
In October
1945, the British-sponsored
In accordance
with the Aung San-Attlee Agreement of January 1947, elections were held in
which the AFPFL won a large majority. Before the new Constituent Assembly could
prepare for independence, Aung San and six members of his Executive Council
were assassinated on
National
On
From 1948
until 1962,
An important
point here is that according to article 201 of the Constitution of 1947, ethnic
minorities had, in theory, the right to secede from the
In 1958, the U
Nu government transferred power to the caretaker government led by General Ne
Win, the head of the army. After eighteen months, general elections took place
and the new parliament was convened in April 1960. The government’s programme
called for strengthening of democratic institutions, establishment of Buddhism
as the state religion and creation of new states within the
He then instituted a
one-party rule (the Burma Socialist Programme Party) under military control. In
1974, a new constitution was drafted under which one-party rule continued, but
in which party membership was opened up beyond the military. Political
conflicts, underground communist movements, student demonstrations and ethnic
insurgencies remained unresolved, with the Burma Army absorbing a large
proportion of the country’s budget and resources.
The
1988 Movement
In 1987,
In January 1993, the regime
thought it had found a solution to this problem by calling a National
Convention that would sanction a constitution that guaranteed a leading role
for the army. As the regime strictly controlled the entire
constitution-drafting process, other forces, including the NLD and the ethnic
organisations that had signed ceasefire agreements with the regime, were denied
the right to freely participate in the process. When Aung San Suu Kyi, General
Secretary of the NLD, was released from house arrest in 1995, the NLD called
upon the regime to reform its National Convention in order to allow the NLD to
become fully involved in the constitutional drafting process. As the junta
refused, the NLD delegates boycotted the National Convention. The NLD later
declared that they would also draft a new constitution. In response to the
NLD’s plan, the regime promulgated Law No. 5/96 prohibiting everyone including
NLD members and elected representatives from drafting, debating or even
discussing a future constitution outside the National Convention.[3]
The various ethnic armed
opposition groups and exiled democratic organisations, who considered that the
constitutional principles laid down by the military regime were lacking not
only in ethnic rights but also democratic rights for the people as a whole,
have also drafted a constitution in 1996 that they call ‘(Future) Constitution
of the Federal Union of Burma’ under the banner of the National Council of the
Union of Burma (NCUB). The NCUB’s constitution aims
to lay the foundation for a long-term resolution of the ‘ethnic question’ and to
sustain reconciliation among the different groups. Sadly, political stalemate
continues among these competing political forces (the military regime, the NLD
and the ethnic forces) and the prospects for dialogue and national
reconciliation remain uncertain.
2. Education before
Before World War II, there
were three types of school in
1.
2.
3.
The vernacular
schools were administered by local education authorities and were the only
schools for the majority of children throughout the country. In a country like
Soon after the return of the
British Government in July 1945, the Department of Education was formed to
implement the Simla Scheme of Educational
Rehabilitation financed out of the British military budget. Its primary
objective was to fulfil the phases of the allied military effort against the
Japanese in
The report also emphasised
the reorganised system of schools that consisted of:
·
Primary school (Standards I to V) for children aged
6 to 11 year olds;
·
Post-primary school (Standards VI to IX) for
children aged 11 to 15 year olds;
·
Pre-university school (Standards X to XII) for
children aged 15 to 18 year olds.
Education in the primary and
post-primary grades was free and in the pre-university grade subsidised.
The report
suggested re-designing the curricula to provide functional realistic
instruction related to civil and occupational environments and particularly to
the predominantly agricultural and rural nature of life in
Primary Schools
1. Religious Instruction2. Language – reading and writing3. Arithmetic 4. Geography 5. Nature Study 6. Hygiene 7. Handicrafts 8. Physical Education |
Post-Primary Schools1. Religious Instruction2. Language – reading and writing3. Elementary Mathematics 4. Geography 5. History 6. Science 7. Handicrafts and practical subjects 8. Physical Education |
The report recommended that
in the primary and post-primary schools both English and Burmese should be regarded
as subjects of equal importance and taught intensively from Standard I. The
report also encouraged bilingual instruction in both primary and post-primary.
In the pre-university and university stages, English must continue to be the
main medium of instruction. Indigenous vernacular languages other than Burmese
and English were recommended to be taught in primary schools in which there was
a majority of students whose mother tongues were neither Burmese nor English.
Furthermore, the report introduced a Romanised script for the Burmese language
as a supplement to but not as a substitute for the present Burmese script. The
rational was that the Romanised script would aid foreigners in learning the
Burmese language quickly and might be useful for certain commercial purposes
including the despatch of telegrams in Burmese (Office of the SUPDT, 1947, p8).
Burmese nationalists were critical of the introduction of the Romanised script
(e.g. Nyi Nyi, 1976) and it
never was adopted. The substitution of a Romanised script was successful in the
case of some ethnic minorities areas such as Chin and Kachin routinely use
Romanised script – often as originally introduced by Christian missionaries -
for their languages till today. Amongst the ethnic Karen, some areas use
Romanised script and some use their own Karen script.
The report considered that
there should be a public examination at the end of each educational stage. The
committee was in favour of the Record Card system. These would be records
maintained throughout a pupil’s school career, giving an objective assessment
of the individual’s attainments, intellectual, moral, physical, aptitudes,
skills and reactions to instruction. These would also abolish the ‘pass-fail’
system. The Report considered it wrong that ‘a pupil who fails in an
examination, which may or may not test their capacity within a narrow field of
mental activity, in the immaturity of their childhood or youth, should be
branded for life as a failure’
(Office of the SUPDT, 1947, p10; my italic).
The report pointed out that
the fundamental aim of
According to the 1953
government publication Education in
Burma, before independence and after independence (Office of the SUPDT,
1953), it seems that there might have been a parallel committee, as it states
that ‘in 1946, an Educational Policy Enquiry Committee was formed and a fairly
comprehensive report covering most phases of post-war educational needs was
submitted by the Committee’ (Office of the SUPDT, 1953, p2). However it was not
mentioned who the members of the Education Policy Enquiry Committee were and
what the relationship with the Education Reconstruction Committee was.
3. Education after
Soon after the declaration
of independence on
On
·
Amalgamation of the post-primary and primary schools
in places where the former exists, to form complete units teaching from the
Infant to the Ninth Standard;
·
Revival of Middle Schools teaching from the Infant
to the Seventh Standard;
·
Re-classification of primary schools’ teaching from
the Infant to the Fourth Standard;
·
Insistence on the use of the Vernacular (Burmese) as
the medium of instruction;
·
Introduction of English as a Compulsory second
language at the post-primary stage, i.e., from the Fifth Standard (Office of
the SUPDT, 1953).
The new policy also
initiated a scheme for free education for all pupils in state schools, from the
primary to the university level. Private schools were allowed in their own
school buildings under the registration of ‘Private Schools Act 1951’. A pilot
project for compulsory primary education was introduced in the suburbs of
·
To ensure that every citizen of the Union of Burma
shall have a basis foundation in the three R’s;
·
To train an adequate number of technicians and
technologists for the rehabilitation;
·
To train and equip young men and women so that they
can shoulder their responsibilities as citizens of the
·
To eradicate illiteracy and imbue all citizens of
the
·
To perpetuate the principles and practice of
democracy through out the
Amongst other educational
matters the curriculum was also re-oriented in accordance with the new
educational aims set forth in the education plan and graded for the primary,
middle and high school stages, with emphasis upon practical and prevocational
subjects and activity programmes. In this curriculum design there was no
consideration for religious education. This was remarkably different from the
pre-independence period. In the 1947 Education Report it was clearly stated
that ‘Buddhist monks and other religious teachers could play a part in the
spiritual guidance and instruction of the people in the system, wherein
children of all races and religions shall receive religious instruction as a
compulsory adjunct to the secular curriculum’. To inculcate the spirit of
co-operative living and to make the school atmosphere congenial, the new plan
gave greater attention to school gardening and arts and crafts while general
science and practices of other kinds including organised games were equally
important. The new plan also launched the establishment of teacher training
schemes to deal with the urgent need for trained teachers of all grades.
The organisation of the
school system in the new education plan was a
·
Nursery School for children aged 3 to 5 year olds
(Private Provision);
·
Primary School (Infant Class (Standard 0) to
Standard IV) for children aged 5 to 10 year olds;
·
Middle School (Standard V to Standard VII) for
children aged 10 to 13 year olds;
·
High School including Agriculture and Technical High
Schools (Standard VIII to Standard X) for children aged 13 to 16 year olds; and
·
Vocational and Technical Institutes and university
for young people aged 16 onward.
In the middle schools, the following subjects were introduced: carpentry and technical and commercial subjects for urban schools; and animal husbandry and agricultural subjects for rural schools. In the high schools, the following subjects were introduced in the curriculum to give a vocational bias in the ordinary high schools: pre-medical subjects, for both boys and girls; general workshop for boys only; domestic science (including Home Nursing) for girls; and business and commercial training for both boys and girls.
Another significant change
was that modern textbooks were introduced in Burmese in all subjects. In 1958,
the Ministry of Education announced the policy on the medium of instruction[4],
namely, that the medium of instruction was to be Burmese in schools and English
was to be taught only from the Fifth Standard onwards (Union of Myanmar, 1992).
However, there was a broad spectrum of state, private, Christian and Buddhist
monastic schools legally functioning around the country and private and
Christian schools taught English from the beginning of primary education. These
private schools also put emphasis on academic subjects without introducing
pre-vocational knowledge. At the university, Burmese was also the medium of
instruction for all subjects starting from Intermediate part A. English was the
medium of instruction in the Honours and Masters classes.
The curriculum for the state
schools introduced vocational subjects according to local needs rather than a
unified qualification system. Education after independence may have brought
about an academic-vocational divide, an urban-rural divide, and inequality of
opportunity between girls and boys. There was also, as stated above, no
provision for Religious Education for the spiritual development of pupils.
Furthermore, no consideration was given to the use of indigenous vernacular
languages when teaching pupils whose mother tongue was not Burmese. Although a
two-year pilot project for compulsory primary education was conducted in the
suburbs of
4 Education under Military
Rule (1962-1988)
Burmese military rule can be classified into two phases: from 1962 to 1974 was the first phase of absolute military rule; and from 1974 to 1988 was the second phase of ‘constitutional dictatorship’ (Silverstein, 1977). In April 1962, the Revolutionary Council formed by the junta led by General Ne Win proclaimed its political programme entitled ‘The Burmese Way to Socialism’, wherein the policy on education was given as follows:
Education: The Revolutionary Council believes the existing educational system unequated with livelihood will have to be transformed. An educational system equated with livelihood and based on socialist moral values will be brought about; Science will be given precedence in education (my italics).
Socialism was not new, having entered the political arena in the 1930s. However, western materialism was substituted for eastern spiritual values in education under the Ne Win regime. Although the policy statement desired ‘an educational system equated with livelihood’, which apparently seemed to prepare the children for the opportunities and experiences of adult life, it narrowly focused on ‘science’ rather than a balanced and broadly based curriculum. Since the 1960s science took precedence over all other subjects and arts subjects were considered to be intellectually inferior. Students were told which subjects they could study at university on the basis of their results at the Tenth Standard examination, those with the highest marks being allowed to study medicine, followed by engineering and other sciences and maths. Those with lower marks were allocated to arts subjects and felt that they had been discriminated against. Although the education policy was based on socialist moral values, there was no equality of opportunity, given the precedence accorded to science subjects, as pupils were already divided into A-list and B-list students at the end of Standard VIII (see below).
Following the
1962 military coup, all schools were nationalised. There were no longer
Christian schools but Buddhist monastic schools could continue to function in
rural areas. In 1964, the system of education was reorganised. The structure of
the ‘New System of Education’ comprised: (a) Basic Education; (b) Technical,
Agricultural and Vocational Education; and (c) Higher Education. In the Basic
Education, school structure was changed from a
·
Primary School (Standard 0 to Standard IV) for
children aged 5 to 10 year olds;
·
Middle School (Standard V to Standard VIII) for
children aged 10 to 14 year olds;
·
High School (Standard IX to Standard X) for children
aged 14 to 16 year olds.
The use of Burmese as the
medium of instruction still remained. There was no consideration for indigenous
vernacular languages for those who mother tongues were not Burmese. There was
also no provision for religious education in the curriculum. English was taught
as a second language from the Fifth Standard. Children had to sit examinations
at the end of each standard based on a ‘pass-fail’ system. National
examinations were at Standard VIII and X. At Standard IV there was a township
level examination. Examination results at Standard VIII were placed in two
categories: A-list and B-list. A-list students could study science subjects at
High school and B-list students could study only arts subjects. As stated
above, the examination results at Standard VIII sharply segregated young
students. Furthermore, the result of this segregation was to downgrade the
importance of arts subjects such as history, philosophy, psychology, sociology
and so on, whether the policymakers had this intention or not. The vast
majority of brighter students opted to follow the science route, for reasons of
prestige and because this would lead them to more secure jobs as doctors,
engineers or scientists. Such jobs were unobtainable by those who were only
able to study arts subjects.
As a result of this policy,
about 70 per cent of students continued the science route and 30 per cent the
arts route. In the science stream, the combination of subjects were Burmese,
English, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology. There were two different
combinations in the arts stream. The first combination consisted of Burmese,
English, Mathematics, Economics, History and Geography. The second combination
consisted of Burmese, English, Optional Burmese, Additional English, History
and Geography. Again at Standard X examination, there were also the A-list and
B-list. A-list students were entitled to apply for universities and B-list
students were entitled only for vocational institutes. Thus, children’s
examination results at an early age determined the shape of their adult life.
Another discrimination was
introduced under
In 1974, military rule changed to constitutional dictatorship. According to article 152 of the 1974 constitution, ‘every citizen shall have the right to education’ and ‘basic education’ would be compulsory. Although the right to free education was theoretically available to all, in reality it was a different story, as this chapter will show. The 1974 Educational Policies embraced the following areas: (a) Basic Education; (b) Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education; (c) Higher Education; and (c) Educational Research. The curriculum for the Basic Education included only two subject routes: arts and science. There was no inclusion of vocational subjects into the Basic Education curricula. Skills acquired in technical, agricultural and vocational education are not relevant to the employment opportunities open to young persons (UN, 1998, p7). ‘Educational research’ became one of the important factors in 1974. However, academic freedom as well as freedom of speech was not guaranteed under the dictatorship regime.
Other
education-linked attempts made by the government were youth schemes. They were
outstanding student scheme, volunteer scheme, school council and ‘Lanzin Youth’. ‘Lanzin Youth’ was
the youth wing of the Burma Socialist Programme Party to sustain the government
and its party. School Council members were handpicked, not based on
democratically elected members. The outstanding student scheme was considered
producing only an elite. To be a lu-yiy-chun (outstanding student) a student must passed
three different level tests (school, township and district) based on the
criteria of academic, sport, general knowledge and intelligence (IQ). This
researcher, when he was in the Standard VII, was selected by the school for a
township level test but was not successful. Thereafter the student’s age was
counted as a criterion. Since the researcher’s age was some months older than
the required age, he had no more chance to be a lu-yiy-chun.
Student
volunteers were usually sent to government construction sites in their summer
holidays. The volunteer scheme, however, was to some extent helpful for
literacy campaigns. Thanks to a group of volunteers of the Education
Department, the literacy campaign in
In the Ywagnan
literacy campaign, the researcher participated actively as a volunteer when he
was a second year university student. It was a sixty-hour literacy course over
a period of a month for reading, writing and arithmetic. Being adults, the
learners had not much leisure time left to attend the literacy classes and were
reluctant to come forward to benefit through the literacy classes as they felt
ashamed and embarrassed to reveal their illiteracy (Thaung Tut,
1981). The other significant problem was language. The learners in the
5. Education on the Wave of
Democratisation (1988 to 2000)
In 1988,
A UNICEF report shows that
almost 40 per cent of children never attend school and almost three-quarters
fail to complete primary education in
The low retention rate in schools, particularly in rural areas, is the major weakness in the context of Burmese education. According to demographic data estimated in 1997/98 (UN, 1998; see also Appendix 2), the population under 15 is 15.5 million and under 5 is 5.5 million. Therefore, the school children population is 10 million. However, the government figure shows that there only 7 million children are in schools (see Figure B). It is obvious to everyone that 3 million children have no school and/or are not attending school.
Figure A: Basic Education
Enrolment (Average Period 1982-1988)
(Reproduced from Myanmar
Education Research Bureau, 1992)
|
1995/96 |
1997/98 |
||||
|
Schools |
Teachers |
Students |
Schools |
Teachers |
Students |
Primary Schools |
35762 |
159078 |
5337432 |
35877 |
167134 |
5145396 |
Monastic Primary Schools |
1507 |
|
83375 |
1556 |
|
93001 |
Middle Schools |
2089 |
53202 |
1475081 |
2091 |
56955 |
1545601 |
High schools |
914 |
16239 |
385225 |
923 |
17089 |
385270 |
Teachers’ Training Schools |
12 |
316 |
2067 |
14 |
372 |
3020 |
Teachers’ Training Institutes |
5 |
218 |
2170 |
5 |
281 |
2321 |
[Extracted from
Even given the low rates of
enrolment, there is a serious shortage of educational facilities, such as the number
of schools, the number of teachers and resources like textbooks, libraries and
laboratories (Khin Maung Kyi et al,
2000, p.146). The number of primary schools ranges from one in five villages in
the heartland of
Children drop out of school
for any number of reasons. Some are related to the child, his/her family and
community environment, and others to the school environment (Myanmar Education
Research Bureau, 1992). Child related factors include illness, lack of
interest, or inability to keep up with the class. Family related factors
include lack of motivation on the part of parents to send their children to
school, inability of the former to meet school expense, or need for the child
to help in earning the family income. Community related factors include
poverty, malnutrition and poor health care, as well as low expectations about
the value of education, particularly in underdeveloped areas. The school
environment factors are related to the lack of availability and the poor
quality of all the inputs of the educational process: teacher and teaching
methods, curricula, teaching and learning materials, facilities, as well as the
organisation and management of the school system (ibid.).
The serious plight of children who never enrol in a school or who drop out of school is one result of army rule. Child soldiers, child labour and street children are the result of the decades of neglect of compulsory basic education. Nevertheless, thanks to Buddhist monks, children who never enrolled in secular schools can still learn the three Rs in monasteries. With regard to ‘functional literacy’, however, which is required for labour to work efficiently with appropriate skills in agriculture, industry or other sectors (Khin Maung Kyi et al, 2000, p.157) children need at least nine years of compulsory education.
It is hard to
determine whether
Despite the present impasse,
the United Nations organisations are involved to improve Burmese education. The
apparent starting point for educational priorities in
·
redefining the role of primary education;
·
strengthening curriculum development to meet
changing needs;
·
creating a fair and efficient selection system;
·
making evaluation learning-oriented;
·
linking education to life after school;
·
improving the quality of teaching;
·
providing appropriate facilities and instructional
materials; and
·
improving sector management.
The regime has set a goal of
achieving universal access to basic education and completion of primary school
by 80 per cent of primary school age children by the year 2000, with assistance
from UN agencies (see Khin Maung Kyi et
al, 2000, p.157). However, the government investment in education is very
low. According to the official financial figures published in 1999, the
Ministry of Education can use only 7.5 per cent of the budget for all
ministries while the Ministry of Defence use 40 per cent (see CRPP, 2000). The
money allocated to education is only 0.5 per cent of the Gross National Product
compared to an average of 2.7 per cent in other Southeast Asian Countries
(source: AFP Bangkok August 22, 2000)[5].
Curriculum
Consideration
Primary schools provide
Burmese, English and mathematics from Standard 0 (KG) to Standard II, and
Burmese, English, mathematics, history and geography for Standard III and IV.
Primary school curriculum is fact-oriented, overemphasising preparation for
secondary education rather than the mastery of basic skills, such as literacy, numeracy, hygiene, and thinking and reasoning skills, as
its main objective. Science is introduced at Standard V. Burmese, English,
mathematics, science, history and geography are taught from Standard V to VIII.
There is no longer a science route and an arts route after the Standard VIII
examination in 1993. (It was abolished in 1977, then reintroduced in 1985.)
Students learn both arts and science subjects at Standard IX and X. They are:
1.
Burmese;
2.
English (second language);
3.
Mathematics;
4.
Science (physics, chemistry and biology); and
5.
Social (history, geography and economics).
Textbooks of mathematics and
science for Standard IX and X are in English and the medium of instruction is
both Burmese and English. This was introduced in 1991. Before 1991, all
textbooks for Basic Education were in Burmese. Arts subjects are still in
Burmese. Up to standard VIII, children learn in Burmese and English is taught
as a subject. There is a big gap between Standard VIII and Standard IX for
children who face higher-level subjects with textbooks in English. It is
generally felt that too much of the basic education curriculum content is
compressed into the two-year high school cycle. Teachers also face difficulties
in teaching in English. Most teachers give explanations in Burmese, but pupils
are required to read and write in English. Question papers are also in English.
For Standard X examination students need to cover the courses for both Standard
IX and X. It should be noted that there is no moral and spiritual education,
design and technology and information technology. Art and sports are in some
cases extra curricula activities. The secondary school curriculum does not
achieve a proper balance between preparation for university and college and
preparation for the work place.
Since teaching and learning in Burmese schools are intensely exam-oriented, because access to preferred university courses is determined by the number of marks obtained at the Tenth Standard exam, pupils resort to private tutoring, called kyu-shin (= tuition). Pupils’ learning centres have shifted from the government school classroom to private tuition schools and house groups (waing kyu-shin). This brings about unnecessary inequality of opportunity for pupils, resulting from differences in family means and geographical background.
In the academic year 2000-2001, the senior secondary school curriculum has changed to subject grouping. After their Standard VIII examinations, students have to choose one out of seven groupings, which are:
1.
Burmese, English, mathematics, physics, chemistry,
economics;
2.
Burmese, English, mathematics, geography, history,
economics;
3.
Burmese, English, mathematics, geography, history,
optional Burmese;
4.
Burmese, English, mathematics, history, economics,
optional Burmese;
5.
Burmese, English, mathematics, history, physics,
chemistry;
6.
Burmese, English, mathematics, optional Burmese,
physics, chemistry;
7.
Burmese, English, mathematics, physics, chemistry,
biology.
On which grounds will children choose a subject group? There is no tradition of career guidance in Burmese schools. Parents from working class and from rural areas have little knowledge about education and the labour market. If teachers choose a grouping for their pupils, it may not be fair for those children whose academic interests are different from the teachers’ choice. Even if the grouping chosen results from a sound dialogue between students, teachers and parents it has to be said that the children are required to make an important decision that will affect their adult life at a very young age.
Another drawback associated with the subject grouping system is that these groupings all concentrate exclusively on preparing students for higher education at the expense of vocational skills. Since less than 10 per cent of secondary school students go on to higher education, the majority 90 per cent are not equipped for the world of work. One important problem linked with the present secondary school curriculum is therefore the lack of consideration regarding linking education with working life (Myanmar Education Research Bureau, 1992). In particular, the primary and secondary school curricula have narrowly focused on the teaching of facts rather than promoting skills, which are needed for the world of work as well as social life.
In 1998, the Ministry of Education proposed that primary schools should offer Burmese, English, mathematics, basic science, social studies, aesthetic education, physical education and school activities (see Ministry of Education, 1998, ch.1, p.10-11). The study, however, highlights the problems found especially in ‘social studies’: the ‘moral and civic’ subject aims at producing obedience to rules rather than active participation in society.
Primary level education is very important in that children need not only master literacy and numeracy skills, but also need to develop social and moral consciousness from an early age. However, the regime uses education as a political tool preventing children from learning how to think[6]. Youngsters are expected to be disciplined in and out of school under the military regime. The notion of discipline invokes ideas of loyalty and the image of obedient citizens.
Assessment
System
According to a government report (Union of Myanmar, 1998), a ‘pass-fail’ examination system has been given up in some primary schools. Instead, the system of grade promotion through continuous assessment is being carried out at 9,210 schools out of 40,450 schools. This study agrees that a pass-fail examination system is not ideal: a pupil who fails an examination early in childhood might be branded for life as a failure (as observed earlier, by Office of the SUPDT, 1947) and suffer from a deep-rooted lack of confidence in themselves. The continuous assessment system should be objective in assessing a student’s progress throughout a course of study in terms of intellectual, moral, social, physical aptitudes and skills. However, the assessment system bribes students so that they become followers of the regime. For example, if a student is a member of the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA) formed by the regime, he or she will get 16 extra marks to pass the yearly examination.
Another interesting point here is that according to the Burmese Government Newspaper, a Japanese educationist, Ms Fumie Kojima, is serving as a Basic Education Curriculum Expert at the Basic Education Department attached by Japan International Co-operation Agency (The New Light of Myanmar, Thursday 26 February 1998). It is thought that the government may prefer a Japanese model of education.
Teaching
Profession
The problems mentioned above
are worsened by the fact that the teaching profession has been neglected by the
regime. Traditionally pupils have the same respect for their teachers as they
have for Buddha and parents. Teachers enter the classroom with goodwill,
interest and self-sacrifice (seidana, wadhana, anina). Nowadays,
the status and role of teachers has declined due to the fact that teachers’
salaries are very low and that they lack material support such as housing and
transport as well as academic support such as pre-service and in-service
trainings. The lack of trained teachers also affects the quality of teaching.
In general, a university degree is the minimum qualification required to become
a primary school teacher (Union of Myanmar, 1992). In some places, where there
are not enough university graduates, people who have passed only the Basic
Education High School (Standard X) examinations are allowed to teach primary
grades (ibid.). These new recruits enter the classroom without initial teacher
training. Some receive training after several years of teaching. In addition,
over two-thirds of the primary schools are understaffed, especially in sparsely
populated rural areas (Myanmar Education Research Bureau, 1992).
According to a government report (see Ministry of Education, 1998), some 57 per cent of primary school teachers, 58 per cent of junior secondary school teachers and 9 per cent of senior secondary school teachers have never undergone teacher training. After years of neglect regarding the teaching profession, the regime is now planning to introduce pre-service and in-service teacher training. However, these training programmes downgrade the level of primary school teachers. For example, after first year training, only qualified trainees can continue to attend the training for junior secondary school teachers. Those who fail to qualify go to primary schools to be teachers. This programme therefore downgrades the importance of primary education as the foundation of social, moral and academic progress in that the system allows for unqualified candidates to teach primary school children. Again, after the second year training, qualified trainees can continue to attend the training for senior secondary school teachers, but those who did not do so well go and teach at junior secondary schools. In like manner, after another two-year secondary school teacher training, many have no other alternative but to go to senior secondary schools to be teachers due to unsatisfying examination results. The best-qualified graduates can move on to post-graduate courses and follow master and doctorate degrees to become university lecturers.
6. Conclusion
To conclude, education in
During the 1948-1962 and
1962-1988 periods, curriculum content, the assessment system and the supremacy
of Burmese language over other nationalities’ languages remained the same. The
differences between each period were that the former put emphasis on arts
subjects and the latter on science, the former focused on five ‘strengths’ and
on building up nationalism while the latter tried to indoctrinate children with
political socialist ideas to sustain one party rule. From national independence
until now, the structure of the education system is almost the same (see Figure
C)[7].
Obviously,
subject-orientated teaching and children’s rote learning have dominated Burmese
education. The system’s deficiencies were reinforced by the lack of teacher
education and weak curricula. Rote learning has been a very strong influence in
There is an urgent need to modernise
education in
Correspondence:
Dr.
Thein Lwin, EdD
Teacher
Training for Burmese Teachers
A, Muang, Chiang Mai 50300
Email.
[email protected]
BASIC EDUCATION Age 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 9+ 10+ 11+ 12+ 13+ 14+ 15+ Grade KG 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ PRIMARY MIDDLE HIGH A 5 4 2 |
HIGHER EDUCATION PROFESSIONAL INSTITUTES ¨ Education (for in-service graduate teachers) ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Economics ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Agriculture; Computer Science ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Technology; Forestry; Veterinary; Dental ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Medicine |
|
|
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Correspondence Courses; Workers’ Colleges ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ Arts & Science ¨ ¨ 2 Years Colleges (Arts & Science) |
|
TECHNICAL, AGRICULTURAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ¨ Handicraft Schools Machinery Repair & Maintenance Schools Evening Trade Class |
B ¨ ¨ Agricultural High Schools ¨ ¨ ¨ Technical High Schools ¨ ¨ ¨ Engineering Evening Classes |
¨ ¨ ¨ Technical Institute, Agriculture Institute ¨ Commercial Schools |
[Reproduced
from
References
Allott, A. J. (1985). Language
Policy and Language Planning in
CRPP (2000) The Report of
the Education Committee ‘Committee Representing People’s Parliament’ formed
by MPs elected in the general election held in 1990 in
Derbyshire, J. and
Derbyshire,
Herbert, P. M. (Compiler)
(1991). World Bibliographical Series,
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, Volume 132,
Inter-Agency Commission
(1990). Final Report. World Conference on Education for All:
Meeting Basic Learning Needs, Inter-Agency Commission, WCEFA (UNDP, UNESCO,
UNICEF, World Bank), 5-9 March 1990,
Khin Maung Kyi,
NCUB (1998). Media Release by National Council of the
Nyi Nyi,
Dr. (1972). Decade of Socialism: New
Educational Reforms in
Nyi Nyi, Dr (1976). Sanit-thit pyin-nya-yei. (Collected articles on the new educational
system in
Office of the SUPDT
(1947). The Report of the Education
Reconstruction Committee.
Office of the SUPDT
(1953). Education in
Panglong Agreement
(1947). Text of the agreement signed at
Panglong on
Silverstein, J. (1977).
Smith, M. (1995).
Thaung Tut
(1981). The Struggle against Illiteracy
in
Tinker, H. (ed.)
(1984). Constitutional Relations between
UN (1999). The Most Repressive Regimes of 1998: A
Special Report to the 55th Session of the United Nations Commission
on Human Rights in
UNESCO (1978). Combining Education and Work: Experiences in
Appendix 1
[Source:
Appendix 2
(Adapted from United Nations Working Group, 1998)
Demographic
Data
Population Crude
Birth Rate New
Births Annual
Number of Under 5 Deaths Annual
Growth Rate Land Area Population
Density Population
Under 5 Population
Under 15 Women Aged 15-59 |
46.4
million 28 1.3
million 0.14
million 1.8% 676,553
sq kms 67 per sq
km 5.7
million 15.45
million 13.85
million |
1997/98 1996 1996 1997 1997/98 1996/97 1997 1997/98 1997/98 |
Social Data
Infant
Morality Rate Under 5
Morality Rate Maternal
Morality Rate Access to
Health Facilities Per
Capita Health Expenditure Access to
Clean Water Access to
Sanitation Net
Primary Enrolment Total
Literacy Per Capita Education Expenditure |
63/1000
births 106/1000
births 232/1000
births 60% 62 Kyats[8] 49% 46% 81% 77% 243 Kyats |
1997 1997 1994 1992 1996/97 1997 1997 1997 1983 1996/97 |
Nutrition Status Malnutrition (weight for age) – Severe among Under 3 Children Malnutrition
(weight for age) – Moderate & Severe among Under 3 Children Low Birth
Weight |
12% 36% 24% |
1997 1997 1991 |
Economic Data
GDP per
capita Growth in
GDP Minimum
Wage Inflation Exports (f.o.b) Imports (c.i.f) Total
External Debt Debt
Service Overseas
Development Assistance |
1,602 Kyats 4.6% 600 Kyats 34% 5,488
million Kyats 11,779 million
Kyats US$ 5,771
million US$ 14.5
million US$ 102
million |
1997/98 1997/98 1997/98 1996/97 1996/97 1995 1994 |
[1] Master, the term by which the British in
[2] The creation of new states within the
[3] Information presented by Khin Maung Win, Burma Lawyer Council, at a women’s rights conference held in Chiang Mai, Thailand in October 2000.
[4] There is not enough evidence found by the researcher that this announcement was whether under the caretaker government (1958-1960) or before the caretaker government.
[5] The message was sent by “Open School Campaign” <[email protected]>
[6] Graham Bailey of the Free Burma Campaign in South Africa gave this statement on Burma’s education system at a press conference in Bangkok after attending the ‘education forum’ held by the National League for Democracy on Monday 21 August 2000 in Rangoon (Source: AFP, Bangkok, August 22).
[7] In
The words
both ‘university’ and ‘institute’ in English are translated by teggatho in
Burmese. For example,
[8] 1